Elizabeth Poole (2002)
Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims
(London: I B Taurus)

Introduction
"...the media as an instrument of public ideology demonizes Islam, portraying it as a threat to Western interests, thus reproducing, producing and sustaining the ideology necessary to subjugate Muslims both internationally and domestically" (p.17)

Concepts/terms
Representation: "the social process of combining signs to produce meaning." (p.23)
Not seeking representation vs. reality, but rather to "extract the discursive constructions within the texts that are related to wider social practices." (p.23)
Representation - ideology - power - theories of news production
"Studies show that, due to the processes involved in... [News] production, news tends to be a limited, conservative and consensual product." (p.23)
News production located in organisational structures and are embedded within capitalism.
Profit motive assures conservatism.

Methods/Structures
Assumption that limited framework of reporting Islam. This places restrictions of public understandings of the same, given that most people's understandings of Islam come via the media.
* Quantitative content analysis
* Discourse analysis
* Focus groups

"...provides current and dominant meanings circulating in British society around one of its minority groups." (p.27)

Chapter 1
Representing Islam: In Theory and Practice
Orientalism
See: Sardar, Z. (1999) Orientalism (Milton Keynes: Open University Press)
"an instrumental system of ideas that has allowed European culture to 'manage produce the Orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically and imaginatively' [Said, 1978: 2]" (Poole, p.29)
"Oriental society ... became the object of a colonial discourse of knowledge and power, the basis of which, Said argues, is fear and the need to control the Other." (p.29)

"An Orientalist discourse sustains the belief that islam as a coherent transnational monolithic force has been engaged in a unilinear confrontational relationship with the West throughout history." (p.32)
Colonial powers departing from Muslim nations left "...artificial nation states and secular regimes that were based on Western models of power and modernity, that maintained ruling elites and that lacked popular participation." (p.34)
"Western economic and cultural imperialism, then, resulted in experiences of dislocation, fragmented identities and the erosion of culture in Muslim societies." (p.34)
"Islamism then positioned itself through the deconstruction of the relation between modernity and the West."  (p.34)
"...it is not modernism that Islamists are rejecting, but the West (and its interpretations of modernity)" (p.35)
For Esposito, the variety of responses by differing groups to the colonial experience is testimony to the flexibility of Islam, the diversity of which, according to Bulliet (1997), will only intensify in the current (postmodern) climate." (p.35)
"Sayyid (1997:40) rejects both the essentialist notion of Islam by the 'Orientalists' and what he argues is an equally reductive argument, that of the 'little Islams'" (p.35)
"The perceived resurgence of Islam coincided with the collapse of the communist bloc" (p.35)

Post Gulf War - Bernard Lewis, Samuel Huntington, etc.
Ahmed (1992) ' a new phase in human history'
Islam as religious/cultural power challenging Western world, questioning its identity, or...
Islam as 'green peril' with fear of anti-Western sentiment
"Whether one believes the threat is cultural, political ... or a myth, these scholars are in no doubt that Islam's challenge to 'Eurocentricism' has resulted in attempts by the West to rescue itself, re-establishing Western supremacy. The project seeks to sustain Western global power by creating an invisible empire through cultural domination." (p.37) See: Shohat, E. and Stam, R. (1994)

Globalization and Islam
"For Sardar (1999) 'Islam' creates a further problem for the Western universalistic project of globalization..." (p.38)
Sardar also argues that the Orient is "...the site for projection of negative aspects of Western culture" such that it is "...more about Western self-construction, for any points of criticism are removed to the Other." (p.39)
Migration
Islam often vital to coping with experience of migration.
'Problem' of 'minorities'
"Mutually antagonistic perspectives and misunderstandings are fuelled by a construction of the cultural clash in the media that renders the 'problem' unsolvable." (p.39)"
"Ethnic majority fears of a supposed Islamic threat have strengthened the politics of assimilation. The contemporary manifestation of this Orientalist discourse has been defined as 'Islamophobia'" (p.40).
"As Said (1978: 273) has already identified, an Orientalist discourse is a product of certain 'cultural, professional, national, political and economic requirements of the epoch." (p.41)
"The aim here ... has been to reveal the myth and consequently the agenda behind [the new formulations of Orientalism], usually concealed by the media production processes that render the product seemingly neutral." (p.41)

Representation of Islam: Islam the media villain
The media have "superseded other institutions in the cultural production of knowledge." (p.41)
Said, E. (1997) Covering Islam (London: Vintage) - cover/covering up
Said identifies Iranian revolution as "the initial signifier to the West of the resurgence of Islam and its problematization." (p.42)

Associations emerging from coverage of Iranian revolution:
* Islamic militancy
* 'Danger'
* Anti-Western sentiment
These associations serve the interests of government and business.
Other writers also see consistent derogatory themes/topics in global coverage of Islam:
* Fundamentalism
* Political instability
* Portrayal of women (as oppressed)
Binary opposition of categories in portrayal of Islam vs. West
West  = rational, humane, developed, superior
Islam = aberrant, undeveloped and inferior
Orientalist discourse permits change in discourse, e.g. oil rich Sheikh plus harem in 1970s but now in decline.
Runnymede Trust, 1997: Open/closed views of Islam.
"For Said, the homogenisation of Muslims works as an 'ideological cover', which contributes significantly to ignorance about the Other." (p.44). research also notes similar homogenisation of ethnic minorities.
Unified effect aided by repeated selection of more extreme individuals who claim to represent the Muslim community.
Islam also represented as static.
For refutation of the medieval nature of Muslim societies, see: Schulze, R. (1995)
Western political hypocrisy e.g. support for democracy yet Western governments support Saudi regime
Muslims represented as uncivilized and barbaric - 'rituals of humiliation' (Hall, 1993)
Demonisation of Islam as oppressive of women (Medieval dress) from both patriachal and feminist cultures.
Islam as extremist/conflictual/threatening, linked to concept of jihad.
Use of dehumanising quasi-scientific terminology - e.g. fundamentalist (?currently being superseded by 'Islamist')
Muslim 'fanaticism' but fanatics in Judaism/Christianity rarely given attention.
Political religion not representative of overwhelming majority of British Muslims: see Bishara (1995)
Muslims as aliens - us/we vs. them/they
'Dual vision' of Islam (contradictory)
* Monolithic and sectarian
* Static yet seeks to absorb other cultures (and thus manipulative)
* Threat but inferior
Stereotypes of Islam "lacking in positive and apolitical images." (p.47)
Role of religion in conflicts misperceived - compare coverage of Bosnian vs. Albanian Muslims
'identikit' Muslim
Q. Has the Orientalist representation of Islam, as Said has claimed, become part of the cultural canon?
"The supposed shift from skin colour to cultural practices as 'the ethnic signifier' has increased Muslims' visibility, given that being a Muslim often comprises an explicit projection of both" (p.48).

Representation of ethnic minorities
My preferred target text on history of racism is: Sardar, Nandy, and Davies (1993)
"The press problematize minority groups in different ways..." (p.49)
Research on this topic "...has reflected the narrow basis on which race has previously been perceived." (p.49)
Politics of ethnicity has opened up a space for Muslims in ethnicity research and debates.
Problem of 'modern racism' (concept from research primarily in the USA)
Modern racism, e.g. espousing non-racism but arguing against 'favouritism'
Modern racism often founded on idea that racism is individual rather than institutional or structural.
Q. Has the socially stigma of racism facilitated a shift to a racism aimed at the acceptable enemy - Muslims?
Q. Have the 'repertoire of representations' around difference simply been transferred to Muslims?

Representing religion
Religion is "an Other that becomes more problematic when it involves non-Christian religions, entailing all the difficulties of cross cultural representation." (p.52)

The manufacture of news
News as "a contested space among the definers of news, within institutions and for audiences, but ultimately limited by the hegemonic discourse of the ruling elites" (p.52) See: Hall (1980)
Research at micro level, e.g. "Structure and routine combine with the dominant interpretive frameworks of journalists, resulting in consensual output based on preconceptions and assumptions rather than on wilful manipulation." (p.52)
Research at macro level, e.g. ownership, economic contexts, deregulation, relationship between politicians and media, new technologies.

Thesis: images of Islam form 'a communal core of interpretations' (Said, 2000), with issues outside of this formation deemed irrelevant. This presents an obstacle to understanding.
"Multi-levelled analysis in theories of ethnocentric discourse in relation to Islam" (p.54) demonstrates representations have to be considered with due regard for economic, political, social and cultural factors.
Explanations for media images of Islam possible in terms of:
1. Theories of interplay of politics and society;
2. Historical conflictual relationship between Islam and the West;
3. Theories of globalization;
4. Politics of ethnicity and difference;
5. Media representations of religion;
6. Institutional news practices within a market system.

Chapter 2
Framing Islam: a quantitative analysis
News framework - "a set of inferences about what it is related to, that define an area of subject matter, and provide the terms in which it is discussed." (p. 55) - from Hartmann et al. (1974)

Period covered: 1994-96
Papers studied: Times, Sunday Times, Guardian, Observer

Global to local
Coverage of global Islam is like that of the global South, revolving around "conflict, terrorism, social and political turmoil and disaster." (p.57) Encourage view of Islam as a threat/danger.
In period studied, only 12% of articles in target papers on Islam were about British Muslims. Even in articles on British Islam, "consistent reference to world events" (p.57). However, note number of nations which are Muslim-majority.
Data illustrates "...how British Islam is becoming a more salient issue, despite a corresponding reduction in space given to global events." (p.58)
Number of stories on British Islam increased throughout period of study - with greatest increase in The Times.
Number of stories on Global Islam varied, but largest number as a percentage of total news per paper in Guardian.
"The majority of coverage of Islam (and this is increasingly the case) consists of news rather than reviews." (p.59).
Times - literary, more book reviews.
"Coverage of Islam accounted for 22 percent of all reporting on the major faiths" (p.60).

DOMESTIC NEWS
Coverage of British Islam, 1994-96 (p.61)

Times smaller coverage reflects its more traditional, Establishment values which more likely to report on minority issues when copy has "extreme news value" (p.61). More parity in Sundays.

~ Periodicity of coverage
Islam issue of education and other policies thus less domestic news on Islam/Muslims when parliament not sitting.
Increase in articles appearing in December probably due to Christmas!
Idea of 'issue attention cycle' pertinent to analysis
See: Downs, A. (1972) 'Up and down with ecology: the "issue attention cycle", Public Interest, 28, 38-50

~ Topical analysis

Education
Education on all sides put on agenda in 1980s
Then NB: Honeyford Affair - 1985
See: Halstead, M. (1988) Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity: an Examination of the Honeyford Affair, 1984-85 (London: The Falmer Press) - extracts here.
Education topic in approx 25% of domestic coverage in targets newspapers.
Most pertaining to 1994 Tory government reforms to Religious Education and daily acts of worship in schools.
Controversy over sex education, dance and music leading to some Muslim parents to withdraw children from schools.
In 1996, funding of Muslim schools: "The debate is symptomatic of the idea that giving Islam equal status to Christianity is a status issue." (p.67)
Christianity discussed in 38% of all articles on education/Islam, compared to 16% on all domestic Islam articles.

Relationships
Conversion (Jemima Goldsmith) and criminality (Sarah Cook)
Conversion - means white converts. "Black British (African-Caribbean) conversions are not newsworthy despite accounting for more than half the converts to Islam in Britain..." (p. 69)

Islamic Fundamentalism
"These stories represent Islam as a global threat to security, fundamentalists in the UK being the political and physical threat within. In addition, fundamentalists are seen to be intolerant through antagonism to other groups, usually religious, in 21 per cent of articles." (p.71)
Subtopic - immigration (19%)

Political activity
1995 Govan bi-election, first Muslim MP, and 1996 activities
Muslims politicians much more likely to be associated with ethnic/race issues rather than national/general political issues
Association with world affairs leads to raising issues of national loyalty, as well as the suggestion that foreign practices are being transferred to Britain (perhaps rightly?)

Criminal Activity
Deviant relationships and political corruption
Bradford riots mostly discussed within a racial paradigm
Also Muslims against prostitution in 1994

Prince Charles
Response to Charles on Islam mostly negative (and on much else, surely!)
Much more in The Times

Belief and religious ritual
"Articles on Islam frequently alluded to Muslim beliefs or religious practices (a total of 189 articles), making this topic the most commonly references of all issues about Islam" (p.77)
Wide framework
Importing uncultivated cultural practices - Islam as barbaric
Tendency of the press to "use religious belief in Islam as a universal cover ... as a key to understanding Muslim behaviour in both social and political arenas." (p.77)

Islam's relation to Christianity
"...tendency to frame debates about Islam comparatively" (p.77)

Freedom of speech/the Rushdie affair
"Eight years after the event, there were still 81 articles referring substantially to Rushdie over the three-year period under review." (p.78)
"...to some extent, the Rushdie affair came to symbolize the debate about freedom of speech in the press." (p.78)
Annual review of fatwa
Implication Muslims outside Britain dictating agenda of British Muslims
Indicative of a 'panic cycle' - see van Dijk (1991)
Also Blasphemy laws

Race relations
5% of article discussed racism, Islamophobia etc - 92% of these in Guardian/Observer!
"...bodes ominously for tabloid coverage" (p.80)
"...reference to Islamophobia occurred mainly in articles of Islamic fundamentalism" (p.81)

Majority of articles on events linked to prevailing image of Muslims or events indicative of an "essential 'Muslimness'" (p.81)
Marginal reference to day-to-day Muslim lives, or to problems facing Muslim such as poverty.

~Topical structures

What other people say about this book:

"While the research raises some interesting questions about the hegemonic representation of Islam, and the encoding/decoding process within a multicultural society, the constraints of the research methodology and timescale ultimately make Reporting Islam a disappointing text. The very narrow, descriptive, content-based focus offers an inadequate contextualization of the process of representation within the broader social and historical processes of racialization; there is no consideration of the institutional genesis of the material; and the often sketchy analysis tends towards repetition, oversimplification and generalization. This is most apparent in the chapter on audience response, which makes a number of claims that are based on a very small and ill defined sample (issues of race/ethnicity, age, class, religion, gender remain undiscussed, except in relation to the Muslim groups) and are largely unsubstantiated in the minimal qualitative material included in the text. Thus, the category of ‘Muslim’ is uncritiqued (except around gender), with an unreflexive privileging of an a priori religious identification." Alexander, C (2003) Reporting Islam: Book Review Journalism, 11:4 p.497

"This is a highly welcome study of how public knowledge of Islam is constructed and reproduced. It represents social science based media research at its best, and should help inform discussion and debate of the representation of Islam in Britain for people across the nation." European Journal of Communication, 3 2003; vol. 18: pg.138-139

Bibliography
Ahmed, A. (1992) Postmodernism and Islam: predicament and promise (London: Routledge)
Bishara, A. (1995) 'Islam and politics in the Middle East', in J. Hippler and A. Lueg [Eds] (1995) The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (London: Pluto Press)
Brah, A., Hickman, M. and Mac an Ghail, M. [Eds] (1998) Thinking Identities: ethnicity, racism and culture (London: Macmillan)
Hall, S. (1980) 'Encoding and decoding', in S. Hall et al [Eds] (1980) Culture, Media and Language (London: Unwin Hyman)
Hall, S. (1993) 'The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power', in S. Hall and Bram Gieben [Eds] (1993) Formations of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity)
Halliday, F. (1992) "Islam is a danger": authority, Rushdie and the struggle for the migrant soul, in J. Hippler and A. Lueg [Eds] (1995) The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (London: Pluto Press)
Said, E. (1997) Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How we See the rest of the World: Revised Edition (London: Vintage)
Said, E. (2000) Orientalism (London: Pantheon)
Sardar, Z. (1999) Orientalism (Milton Keynes: Open University Press)
Sardar, Z., Nandy, A. and Davies, M. W. (1993) Barbaric Others: A manifesto on western racism (London: Pluto)
Schulze, R. (1995) 'How medieval is Islam? Muslim intellectuals and modernity', in J. Hippler and A. Lueg [Eds] (1995) The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (London: Pluto Press)
Shohat, E. and Stam, R. (1994) Unthinking Eurocentricism (London: Routledge)
van Dijk, T. (1991) Racism and the Press (London: Routledge)

And check out: Poole, E. (2000) Media representation and British Muslims http://www.al-bab.com/ (and here)

 * daily terror *
the pen/index

Posted: November 2006